Getting the Whole Picture: Women and Ministry in 1 Timothy

For years, I’ve wrestled with Paul’s letters to Timothy—especially 1 Timothy—to better understand the cultural and religious landscape of first-century Ephesus and Asia Minor, where Paul and Timothy ministered. In the past 7–8 years, I’ve discovered several aspects that were rarely discussed (or at least not widely accessible) in conversations about women in the church until recently. I encourage you to be like the Bereans: test everything and do your own research (Acts 17:11). I hope to expand each of these points into a full article to share in the future. Here is a partial list of key contextual pieces I’ve uncovered:

PAGAN INFLUENCE AND SYNCRETISM
Ephesus was a major religious center, home to over 50 gods and goddesses. The dominant deity was Artemis of the Ephesians, whose grand temple was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (as noted by Philo of Byzantium in the 3rd century BC and other ancient sources). When many Ephesians turned to Christ (as described in Acts 19), it sparked a riot from Artemis’s devoted followers. But Artemis was far from the only deity worshipped there. (References: Clinton Arnold, Talbot School of Theology president and NT professor, via his books and personal correspondence; ancient accounts of the Seven Wonders. ); Seven Wonders of the Ancient World )

PAGAN PRACTICES, INCLUDING WITCHCRAFT
Other prominent deities in Ephesus included Aphrodite, Hecate, Cybele, Dionysus, and Isis. Each deserves its own exploration. Archaeological evidence reveals altars to Hecate in the courtyard of Artemis’s temple. Ancient sources describe Hecate as a triple goddess (maiden, mother, crone) associated with witchcraft, often called “the old woman”—using the same rare Greek term (graōdeis) that Paul employs in 1 Timothy 4:7 (“old-womanish myths”).

Dionysus (god of wine, ecstasy, and erotic pleasure; recall the 2024 Paris Olympics opening ceremonies) and Aphrodite (goddess of eros love) were frequently paired in Ephesian artifacts. Ephesians 5 may serve as Paul’s direct correction to their pagan practices, contrasting their sexual immorality (v3-13), drunken debauchery (18), erotic festivals (19) and eros love with a Christ-centered lifestyle and agape love (2x2, 25x2, 28x3, 33) in marriage. Aphrodite in Ephesos?

RARE AND UNUSUAL GREEK WORDS
Paul, a brilliant rhetorician trained in Tarsus (“no mean city,” Acts 21:39—a classical allusion to Euripides’ civic pride in his play Ion) and under Gamaliel in Jerusalem, frequently uses rare or unique words. He quotes the Septuagint nearly 100 times and draws from various ancient sources. Governor Festus even remarked that Paul’s learning was driving him mad (Acts 26:24). The Pastoral Epistles, especially 1 & 2 Timothy, are packed with over 100 hapax legomena (words appearing only once in the NT) or near-hapax terms, some possibly coined by Paul himself. HAPAX LEGOMENON Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster

PAGAN MYTHICAL GENEALOGIES
Paul warns against “myths and endless genealogies” (mythois kai genealogiais) in 1 Timothy 1:4. Early church fathers linked this to proto-Gnostic aeons, while many commentators see Jewish mythical angel genealogies and/or their physical genealogies. However, Paul explicitly pairs mythos (myths) with genealogia (genealogies). This echoes Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 500 BC), who wrote a four-book series titled Genealogia recording Greek human and mythical lineages. Only 30–40 fragments survive, but its famous opening states: “Hecataeus of Miletus thus speaks: I write what I deem true; for the stories of the Greeks are manifold and seem to me ridiculous.” Paul, educated in rhetoric (which included debating such genealogies), likely knew of this work through references in other authors, oral tradition, or his travels (including nearby Miletus). Under the Holy Spirit’s inspiration, he creates a phrase that powerfully encapsulates and engages the surrounding culture.

Anchoring Genealogy in: Mnemosyne Volume 77 Issue 2 (2024)

KIN-MURDER, SACRIFICE, AND VIOLENCE
A particularly rare word in 1 Timothy 2:12 is authentein (a hapax legomenon in the NT). The authent- word family appears in classical Greek tragedies (which Paul references elsewhere), often describing murderers (authentai) tried at Athens’ Areopagus court—the same hill where Paul spoke in Acts 17. Aeschylus’s Eumenides (a tragedy likely familiar to educated Ephesians via the Great Theatre’s 25,000 seats) features kin-murder trials. The Septuagint’s Wisdom of Solomon 12:6 uses a related term for kin-murder/sacrifice, mirroring aspects of Ephesian pagan idolatry. 

Paul’s use of authentein predates later Gnostic applications (2nd century AD). Jerome’s Vulgate (c. 400 AD) rendered authentein as dominare (“to dominate”), Erasmus (1516) as “usurp authority” (implying illegitimate power), and modern translations as “exercise authority” or just “authority”. Over time, the original negative, forceful connotation (possibly evoking violence or domineering control) faded and was forgotten.

So, was murder really on Paul’s mind? Paul includes three hapax references to murder in 1 Timothy 1:9. 

The Trial That Saved Athens: Orestes at the Areopagus | Spoken Past

The Wisdom of Solomon 12 GNT

The meaning of authentein with a brief history of authent– words - Marg Mowczko

These rare words that have been through multiple translations, along with the broader Ephesian context that has literally been buried for centuries with Artemis’ temple, may help clarify some of these most challenging passages. 

What was Paul’s heart for women in the church? What is God’s heart for women in His church? These pieces might offer a pathway toward greater understanding and I hope this can foster a respectful discussion to help move forward on passages that have deeply impacted women and the Church.

If you’re interested, I’ve shared more on this in the comments of: A Christian Discussion on Women in Office | CRC Network

Feel free to share your thoughts, insights, or questions—I’d love to continue the discussion!